[65] During the reign of king Sattha (Paramaraja IV, 15761594), the central sanctuary at Angkor Wat was remodeled in Theravda style. Sla, meaning moral conduct, is mainly defined as right speech, right action, and right livelihood. [38] Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the Amarapura Nikya and the Rmaa Nikya.[39]. This included the introduction of the modern office of sangha leader (sangharaja) as well as the establishment of a national monastic examination system. Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. According to Peter Harvey, while the Theravdans may have added texts to their Tipiaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. [17], The Sri Lankan Buddhist Sangha initially preserved the Buddhist scriptures (the Tipitaka) orally as it had been traditionally done in India. [197], The Mahavamsa mentions forest monks associated with the Mahavihara. This movement was influenced by gnostic and magical currents pervasive at that time, and its aim was to obtain spiritual liberation and purity more speedily. He was called the Buddha and lived in the 4th or 5th century B.C. His social background and life details are difficult to prove, and the precise dates are uncertain. Written by the leading authority on Theravada Buddhism, this up-dated edition takes into account recent research to include the controversies over the date of the Buddha and current social and political developments in Sri Lanka. Mahavamsa), hagiographies, practice manuals, textbooks, poetry, and doctrinal summaries of Theravada Abhidhamma, such as the Abhidhammavatara. [citation needed]. Buddhism is an Indian religion founded on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived c. 5th to 4th century BCE. [19], Later developments included the formation and recording of the Theravda commentary literature (Atthakatha). Buddhism in the Himalaya, its expansion and the present-day - UNESCO Gombrich explores the legacy of the Buddha's predecessors and the social and religious contexts against which Buddhism has developed and changed throughout history . These monks were responsible for many important translations into English and German. However, there is a danger that traditional Buddhism in the Kathmandu valley, which is . In the modern era, Theravda Buddhism faced numerous challenges, such as Western colonialism and the arrival of Christian missionaries. [109] The late 20th century also saw the rise of new religious movements like Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Santi Asoke. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. in what is now modern Nepal. [109] In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality and never exist in isolation. (A Concise History of Buddhism, 1994.) Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Regarded as the belief closest to the one taught by The Buddha himself, it is based on the recollections of The Buddha's teachings amassed by the Eldersthe elder monks who were Buddha's companions. Theravada Buddhism: Basic Terms and Concepts | OurHappySchool [120], 20th century Nepal also saw a modern Theravda movement which was mostly led by Newars. The central theory of the Abhidhamma is thus known as the "dhamma theory". [112], The main categories of the planes of existence are:[110][111], These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems (loka-dhatu), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). An important genre of Theravdin literature is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Theravada Buddhism Overview Origins History Beliefs Rituals and Worship Ethics and Community Origins Founders Theravadins claim that their teachings and way of life were set out by the Buddha. [90] Anagarika Dharmapala was one of the main Theravda leaders of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival. What is a Theravada<br>Buddhasm? Buddhaghosa (c. 5th century), the most important Abhidharma scholar of Theravda Buddhism, presenting three copies of the Visuddhimagga. Study (ganthadhura) of the Buddhist texts and listening to Dhamma talks by monks or teachers are also important practices. 6. amoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. [123] The Ananda Kuti, which became the center of the movement, was founded in 1947, with Bhiksu Amritananda as abbot. Modern Theravda derives from the Mahvihra order, a Sri Lankan branch of the Vibhajjavda tradition, which is, in turn, a sect of the Indian Sthavira Nikaya. Ven. Siddhartha Gautama found the path to Enlightenment. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient by Richard F Gombrich New Book. Washington (D.C.) Buddhist Vihara founded first Theravada monastic community in the USA. A Thumbnail Sketch.<br><br>As soon as you are able to consider your<br>From the point of view of immediate experience in terms of impermanence (anicca), dissatisfaction (dukkha) and impersonality (anatt ), it becomes possible to clearly identify the most subtle and . It is primarily understood through the doctrine of kamma. by Siddhartha Gautama (the "Buddha"), is an important religion in most of the countries of Asia. During the reign of king Anawrahta (Pali: Aniruddha, 10441077), Theravda became the main religion of the Burmese Bagan Kingdom (8491297). [4] One element of this conservatism is the fact that Theravda rejects the authenticity of the Mahayana sutras (which appeared c. 1st century BCE onwards).[5][6]. 31.02. What is Theravada Buddhism? - Access to Insight Theravada Buddhism in Burma, by Niharranjan Ray, is a history of Buddhism with emphasis on Burmese-Indian relations, and written by an Indian, but it, . Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation, 1995. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFronsdal1998 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2014 (. Theravada Buddhism | PDF | Buddhist Texts | Bhikkhu Buddhism in Cambodia - Wikipedia [143], Buddhist modernist trends can be traced to figures like Anagarika Dhammapala, King Mongkut, and the first prime minister of Burma U Nu. [9], Theravda is descended from the ancient Tmraparya sect, which means "the Sri Lankan lineage". Tse-Fu Kuan. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in Lumbini near the present Indian-Nepal border, the son of the ruler of a petty kingdom. Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for The Spread of Theravada Buddhism in South India: (3rd Century B.C. [11], Scholar monks generally undertake the path of studying and preserving Theravda's Pli literature. Henepola Gunaratana is another modern Theravda scholar who studied philosophy in the west (at the American University). This is a comparison of the two main strands of Buddhism Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar). Acknowledgments viii Map xi Introduction 1 Part One Buddha 13 1 The Buddha and Buddhahood 15 2 Buddha Worship 43 Part Two Dhamma 69 3 Literature, Languages, and Conveying the Dhamma 71 4 The Jataka 99 5 The Good Buddhist 112 6 Meditation 138 7 Abhidhamma 174 Part Three Sangha and Society 195 8 Monks, Monasteries, and their Position in Society 197 9 Women in Monasticism 218 10 Women in . Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern The prtimoka of the nun's order in East Asian Buddhism is the Dharmaguptaka, which is different from the prtimoka of the current Theravda school; the specific ordination of the early Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka sect originated with the Sthvirya as well. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern. The founder of Buddhism was Siddhattha Gotama, known as the Buddha, who was awakened (enlightened) about 2,500 years ago at the age of 35. Vajrayana Buddhism (The Way of the Diamond, also known as Tibetan Buddhism) Of these, as noted, Mahayana Buddhism is the most widely practiced, and its rituals, such as pilgrimage to stupas and other holy sites and veneration of statues of the Buddha, are most widely recognized. [175], According to Crosby, the esoteric born kammahna or yogvacara meditation tradition was the dominant form of meditation in the Theravda world during the 18th century, and may date as far back as the 16th century. They record gifts to the sangha, significantly by householders and chiefs rather than by kings. [1][2][web 1], The Pli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language, Pli, which serves as the school's sacred language[2] and lingua franca. Divisions of Buddhism - Buddhist beliefs - Edexcel - GCSE Religious [1] For many centuries, Theravada has been the predominant . The form of Buddhism that developed elsewhere in Asia is called Mahayana. Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century BC, founded by Prince Siddhartha, who eventually achieved the ultimate goal of enlightenment. By the 18th, village monasteries were a common feature of every Burmese village and they became a main center of education. Buswell Jr., Robert E.; Lopez Jr., Donald S. (2013). [59][61] According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pli manuscripts. List of Ten Best Theravada Buddhism Books Top Picks 2023 Reviews What are the teachings of Theravada Buddhism? Some of these figures, such as David Kalupahana, Buddhadasa, and Bhikkhu Sujato, have criticized traditional Theravda commentators like Buddhaghosa for their doctrinal innovations which differ in significant ways from the early Buddhist texts.[145][146][147]. 5. The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed merit-making (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). 1939). In Theravada Buddhism, it teaches that there are 28 Buddhas having Gautama . Indeed, according to Buddhaghosa, there are three main soteriological paths: the path of the Buddhas (buddhayna); the way of the individual Buddhas (paccekabuddhayna); and the way of the disciples (svakayna). She ordained the first nuns in Sri Lanka. Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia: Second Edition, p. 164. Buddhaghosa's works, especially the Visuddhimagga, are the most influential texts (apart from the Pli Canon) in the Theravda tradition. [119] While in Mahayana, bodhisattas refers to beings who have developed the wish to become Buddhas, Theravda (like other early Buddhist schools), defines a bodhisatta as someone who has made a resolution (abhinhra) to become a Buddha in front of a living Buddha, and has also received a confirmation from that Buddha that they will reach Buddhahood. [35] In the British colonies of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools). Theravdin monasteries have been providing free education to many children since ancient times. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. Both had to endure French colonialism, civil wars and communist governments. [20] There were also various commentaries in Sinhala, such as the "Great commentary" of the Mahavihara school, which is now lost.[21]. The Revival of Buddhism in Indo-Bangla Territory: A New Perspective. The modern era saw new developments in Theravda scholarship due to the influence of Western thought. [194] These include social service and activist organizations such as the Young Men's Buddhist Association of Colombo, the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, the Sarvodaya Shramadana of A. T. Ariyaratne, the NGO's founded by Sulak Sivaraksa such as Santi Pracha. [196] The ascetic focused monks were known by the names Pamsukulikas (rag robe wearers) and Araikas (forest dwellers). Mahyna Stras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path. [100][101], One of the most influential kings was Mongkut (r. 18511868), who had been a monk himself for twenty-seven years and was learned in Pli as well as western literature (he knew Latin and English). [52], Anawrahta invited numerous Mon, Indian and Sinhalese Theravda monks to Bagan to propagate and reform Theravda in his kingdom. [129] Under French Colonial rule, Vietnamese Khmers could now practice freely and receive a Theravda education in government schools. 5. Nowadays, there are three types of Buddhism in Nepal: Theravada, Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism and Newar Vajrayana Buddhism. During the pre-modern era, Southeast Asian Buddhism included numerous elements which could be called esoteric. 53. r/Buddhism. Buddhism vs Theravada - Difference and Comparison | Diffen This tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. Walpola Rahula's, What the Buddha Taught is seen by scholars as an introduction to modernist Buddhist thought and the book continues to be widely used in universities.[143]. Buy Theravada Buddhism - Continuity, Diversity, and Identity by K Crosby from Foyles today! [25], Abhayagiri Theravdins maintained close relations with Indian Buddhists over the centuries, adopting many of the latter's teachings,[26] including many Mahyna elements, whereas Jetavana Theravdins adopted Mahyna to a lesser extent. [67][68] King Ram Khamhaeng (fl. Theravada Buddhism "Way of the Elders" Background founded in India predominant religion of Sri Lanka A conservative branch of Buddhism that adheres to Pali scriptures and the nontheistic ideal of self-purification to nirvana the oldest record of the Buddha's teachings sometimes called 'Southern Buddhism'. [53] Furthermore, various priests of the esoteric Ari Buddhism who refused to conform to the reforms were banished. Honoring others; showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Theravada - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia According to Theravada tradition, Mahadeva was the founder of Theravada Vinaya. [11] However this opposition is not consistent, and urban monasteries have often promoted meditation while forest communities have also produced excellent scholars, such as the Island Hermitage of Nyanatiloka. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the Sangha Council of Elders (Pali: Mahthera Samgama), the highest body of the Thai sangha. Oct 1992. Why is Siddhartha Gautama so important to Buddhists? [153][154][web 3], Samatha ("calm") consists of meditation techniques in which the mind is focused on a single object, thought, or gatha, leading to Samdhi'. Applying knowledge acquired through direct experience and personal realization is more heavily emphasized than beliefs about the nature of reality as revealed by the Buddha. Theravada was founded in Nepal. Esoteric Theravada: The Story of the Forgotten Meditation Tradition of Southeast Asia. [34] Sinhala chronicles state that the Buddhist sangha was in conflict at this time, while many monks had even married and had children. Theravada Buddhism | A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern C Mahayana vs Theravada - Difference and Comparison | Diffen Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, p. 2. Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with the suttas, which present numerous teachings given by the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs). 18, 100. Theravda monasteries also grew around the temple complex at this time, such as Wat Preah Indr-Kosiy. During the reign of Voharika Tissa (209-31 CE), the Mahvihra tradition convinced the king to repress the Mahyn teachings, which they saw as incompatible with the true doctrine. [12] However, in spite of the instability, this era also saw the expansion of Buddhist culture, arts and architecture. [112] After the end of the communist regime a new unified Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. Over time, their main centers became the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura (the ancient Sri Lankan capital), and (Kanchi (in Tamil Nadu). Notable 20th century forest Ajahns included Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah.[107]. Skilling, Peter. [71], Later Thai kings would continue his policy of focusing their patronage on Sinhalese Theravda. Dragonetti, Carmen (2009). Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravda nation to retain its independence throughout the colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, bureaucratized and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty. (2) If Buddhism is a field of . Freeing The Buddha: A Course on Theravada Buddhism by Brian Ruhe New But this began to change in the 19th century. The reign of Rama VIII (19351946) saw the translation of the entire Pali Canon into the Thai language. Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity - Semantic Scholar Goenka. Buddhism, founded in the late 6th century B.C. The perceived decline of Buddhism among the Burmese people led to a revival movement which took many forms including the foundation of lay Buddhist organizations and the founding of new Buddhist schools. late 13th century) was the first Thai king to give his full royal support to the Sinhalese Theravda school. Looking for a U.S.- based Theravada retreat opportunity. [105] He was the leading intellectual of the era and his doctrinal interpretations remain the orthodox Thai Buddhist doctrine. Dharmapala appealed to laypersons, providing them with a national identity and a modern religious practice. 37.34. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo Richard Gombrich Routledge, Apr 14, 2006 - Religion - 256 pages 1 Review Reviews aren't verified, but Google checks. In 429, by request of China's emperor, nuns from Anuradhapura were sent to China to establish the order there, which subsequently spread across East Asia. [30][31][32] During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. [74] Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind of phenomenological psychology by numerous modern scholars such as Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi and Alexander Piatigorsky. About Buddhism - Theravada They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. Buddhist monastic life according texts theravada tradition | Buddhism [41], After the reign of Parkramabhu I, the island saw further waves of Indian invaders, forcing the Sinhala monarchs to retreat to the south again. Upto 14th at the best online prices at eBay! 1199: Nalanda University destroyed; demise of Buddhism in India. It was in Sri Lanka that the Pli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature developed. [32][33], The next influential figure in Sinhala Buddhism was Parkramabhu I (11531186) who unified the island and promoted extensive reform of what he saw as a divided and corrupt sangha. The Tipitaka is the oldest historical collection of texts on Buddhism, having its roots in the First Buddhist Council of the fifth century B.C.E. [68][69], Much of the material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravdan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. [81] While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravda as the Tipiaka, they remain influential works for the exegesis of the Tipiaka. By Alex Shashkevich Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, p. 5. Sinhala kings attempted to stem this decline through directly purging the sangha of undisciplined monks and also by appointing sangharajas (chief of the sangha). [1]:49,64, According to its adherents' accounts, the Theravda school derives from the Vibhajjavda ("doctrine of analysis") group, which was a division of the Sthvira tradition that arose during the putative Third Buddhist council held around 250 BCE under the patronage of Indian Emperor Ashoka. The term "Historical Buddha" (Sakyamuni Buddha) refers to the Buddha Siddhattha Gotama, the founder of Buddhism, who was born in North India some 2,500 years ago (around 600 BC) and whose authentic teaching has lived on to this day, mainly through Theravada Buddhism. This page was last edited on 13 February 2023, at 23:12. The Thai Dhammayuttika Nikaya was introduced into Cambodia during the reign of King Norodom (18341904) and benefited from royal patronage. However, Thailand's two main Theravda Buddhist orders, the Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika Nikaya, have yet to officially accept fully ordained women into their ranks. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica, 2008. Actions done with good intentions, even if they have bad results, will not have negative kammic consequences. Revival of meditation by monks and laypersons (see: Reassertion of women's rights. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. Taylor, J.L. Timeline of Buddhist History - dummies Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Theravada - Wikipedia . The Buddhist tradition is founded on and inspired by the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. BuddhaNet eBooks: Welcome The "New Burmese method" was developed by U Nrada and popularized by his student Mahasi Sayadaw, Sayadaw U Pandita and Nyanaponika Thera. His last words were "All composite things decay, strive diligently". Understanding destroys the ten fetters and leads to Nibbana. [124] Throughout the 20th century, many Newars, who traditionally practice a form of Vajrayana, have enthusiastically adopted Theravda. [45], The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. Why Theravada? [120] Dhammapala's Cariypiaka is a Theravda text which focuses on the path of the Buddhas, while the Nidnakath and the Buddhavasa are also Theravda texts which discuss the Buddha path.[120]. Monks were forced to attend indoctrination sessions and political classes and faced criticism from straying from the party line. [50][51] Forms of Esoteric Theravda include what has been called the "Yogvacara tradition" associated with the Sri Lankan Yogvacara's manual (c. 16th to 17th centuries). [181] The practice was revived in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi (17281816) and by later figures such as Ledi Sayadaw and Mahs Sayadaw during the 19th and 20th centuries. Goenka, Mogok Sayadaw, Sunlun Sayadaw, and Pa Auk Sayadaw. Ruptured histories". One of the largest Buddhist nations in the world, nearly 95% of Thailand's population follows Buddhism.Thailand is perhaps the only country in the world where the king is stipulated to be a Buddhist and the patron of the faith in Thailand. Here you will find our extensive collection of eBooks that were created by the Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. for BuddhaNet.Net. Ledi Sayadaw (18461923) was one of the key figures in this movement. late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. [97], Theravda traditionally promotes itself as the Vibhajjavda "teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Therefore, women who wish to live as renunciates in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. [18] With few exceptions, surviving Theravdin Pli texts derive from the tradition of the Mahvihra at Anuradhapura. "Tantric Theravada: A Bibliographic Essay on the Writings of Francois Bizot and others on the Yogavacara-Tradition", Ladwig, Patrice. In most Theravda countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. While Pli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravdins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media. Theravada means "doctrine (or teaching) of the elders." The school claims to be the oldest existing school of Buddhism. On this basis, these Early Buddhist texts (i.e. The Historical Buddha - Theravada Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards. The Burmese people adopted Theravda as they came into contact with and conquered the Pyu and Mon civilizations. The Buddha wandered about for over four decades, and established an order of monks and nuns known as Sangha. [157][154] It is the primary focus of the modernist Burmese Vipassana movement. Mindfulness in similes in Early Buddhist literature in. Performing good deeds is another important feature of Theravdin Buddhist ethics. Buddhism - Definition, Founder & Origins - HISTORY If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short. Tola, Fernando. And it is designed to provide you fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. [199] Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravda sanghas and also tend to focus on asceticism (dhutanga) and meditative praxis. In Sri Lanka, it became known as the Tambapaiya (and later as Mahvihravsins) which was based at the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura (the ancient Sri Lankan capital). Traditionally, the Theravda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravdins agree with the traditional point of view:[121][122]. After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel and monks often took up the role of mediators in most disputes. He attained Parinirvana at the age of 80 at Kusinara (of the Mallas). [33][34], In the 19th and 20th centuries, Theravda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. Examples include Wat Sithor, Wat Prampil Lvaeng at Angkor Thom and Wat Nokor. Buddhism entered Cambodia via two different streams. Another important religious practice for the devout is the keeping of special religious holidays known as Uposatha which are based on a lunar calendar. For instance, a Theravda monk or nun is not supposed to work, handle money, listen to music, cook, etc. Some key figures of this movement include Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Brahm, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, and Ajahn Pasanno. A buddhizmus ezen formja hivatalos valls Kambodzsban, Laoszban, Sr Lankn, Thaifldn s Burmban, valamint kisebbsgi valls Vietnmban, Bangladesben .
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